Chinese Canadian Masculinity During the Exclusion Era

Abstract

This paper examines how Chinese Canadian men reconstructed ideas and expressions of masculinity in response to the unique pressures of the Chinese exclusion era, defined by the Chinese Headtax and Chinese Exclusion Act. The consequences of anti-Chinese legislation, discourse, and beliefs created a unique environment for Chinese communities in Canada, with few women, limited access to jobs, and oppressive stereotypes. During this time, dominant Canadian culture attempted to isolate Chinese Canadian men from the ideals of hegemonic masculinity. However, these men transformed cultural and social practices to create a distinct Chinese Canadian masculinity and assert manhood within their communities and the larger nation. These assertions included the embodiment of both Western and Chinese ideals of masculine appearance, which allowed men of Chinese heritage to project manhood within society. They also reorganized gendered roles, finding economic success and social respectability through domestic and traditionally feminine labour as exemplified by the prominence of Chinese owned laundries and restaurants during this time. Furthermore, these communities reassigned meaning to interpersonal relationships by placing new significance on homosocial bonds and redefining heterosexual relationship dynamics. The evidence presented argues that Chinese Canadian men resisted Canada’s attempts to emasculate them by reimagining community structures and creating new gender ideals that suited Chinese Canadian life.