PARENT REPORTS OF THE PREVALENCE OF ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AMONG CHILDREN AND TEENS IN THE CAPE COAST METROPOLIS, GHANA
Keywords:
adverse childhood experiences, prevalence, children, teens, Cape Coast, Ghana
Abstract
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) — potentially traumatizing events that occur in childhood — have been linked to serious health problems later in life. Despite the documented negative effects of ACEs, and the high prevalence of ACEs in lower-middle-income countries, research about ACE prevalence is sparse for locales in Sub-Saharan Africa. This descriptive study examined the prevalence of ACEs among 800 children and teens in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana, as reported by their parents (or caregivers), who were recruited from February to April 2021. Parent-reported sociodemographic characteristics and ACEs experienced by the children and teens were collected with the Center for Youth Wellness ACE Questionnaire (CYW ACE-Q). Analysis of the parents’ reports indicated that about 84.9% of the children and teens had been exposed to at least one ACE, 69.1% had experienced two or more ACEs, and 51.8% had experienced three or more ACEs. The most prevalent ACEs, according to the parents, were community violence (50.2%), separated parents (34.0%), physical abuse (33.4%), and emotional abuse (28.9%). This study thus reveals a high prevalence of ACEs in the Cape Coast Metropolis of Ghana, suggesting the need for policies and actions aimed at reducing community violence and protecting children from abuse in the Metropolis.
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References
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Audu, B., Geidam, A., & Jarma, H. (2009). Child labor and sexual assault among girls in Maiduguri, Nigeria. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 104(1), 61–67. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2008.09.007
Badoe, E. (2017). A critical review of child abuse and its management in Africa. African Journal of Emergency Medicine, 7(Suppl), S32–S35. doi:10.1016/j.afjem.2017.09.002h
Bellis, M.A., Hughes, K., Leckenby, N., Perkins, C., & Lowey, H. (2014). National household survey of adverse childhood experiences and their relationship with resilience to health-harming behaviors in England. BMC Medicine, 12, Article 72. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-12-72
Bellis, M. A., Hughes, K., Ford, K., Ramos Rodriguez, G., Sethi, D., & Passmore, J. (2019). Life course health consequences and associated annual costs of adverse childhood experiences across Europe and North America: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 4(10), e517–e528. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30145-8
Blum, R. W., Li, M., & Naranjo-Rivera, G. (2019). Measuring adverse child experiences among young adolescents globally: Relationships with depressive symptoms and violence perpetration. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), 86–93. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.020
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 993–1028). John Wiley & Sons.
Bucci M., Gutiérrez Wang L., Koita K, Purewal S., Silvério Marques S., Burke Harris N. (2015). Center for Youth Wellness ACE-Questionnaire User Guide. San Francisco, CA: Center for Youth Wellness.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). 2019 state and local youth risk behavior survey. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/2019/2019_YRBS-Standard-HS-Questionnaire.pdf
Charak, R., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Berckmoes, L. H., Ndayisaba, H., & Reis, R. (2017). Assessing the factor structure of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and cumulative effect of abuse and neglect on mental health among adolescents in conflict-affected Burundi. Child Abuse & Neglect, 72, 383–392. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.009
Charak, R., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Berckmoes, L. H., Ndayisaba, H., & Reis, R. (2021). Intergenerational maltreatment in parent–child dyads from Burundi, Africa: Associations among parental depression and connectedness, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and aggression in children. International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 34(5), 943–954. doi:10.1002/jts.22735
Chigiji, H., Fry, D., Mwadiwa, T. E., Elizalde, A., Izumi, N., Baago-Rasmussen, L., & Maternowska, M. C. (2018). Risk factors and health consequences of physical and emotional violence against children in Zimbabwe: A nationally representative survey. BMJ Global Health, 3(3), e000533. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000533
Cluver, L., Orkin, M., Boyes, M. E., & Sherr, L. (2015). Child and adolescent suicide attempts, suicidal behavior, and adverse childhood experiences in South Africa: A prospective study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(1), 52–59. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.03.001
Cooke, E. M., Connolly, E. J., Boisvert, D. L., & Hayes, B. E. (2023). A systematic review of the biological correlates and consequences of childhood maltreatment and adverse childhood experiences. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(1), 156–173. doi:10.1177/15248380211021613
Crouch, E., Probst, J. C., Radcliff, E., Bennett, K. J., & McKinney, S. H. (2019). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) among US children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 92, 209–218. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.04.010
Dawes, A., De Sas Kropiwnicki, Z., Kafaar, Z., & Richter, L. (2005). Corporal punishment of children: A South African national survey. https://repository.hsrc.ac.za/bitstream/handle/20.500.11910/7142/3456.pdf
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
Godden, B. (2004). Sample size formulas. Journal of Statistics, 3(66).
Hillis, S., Mercy, J., Amobi, A., & Kress, H. (2016). Global prevalence of past-year violence against children: A systematic review and minimum estimates. Pediatrics, 137(3), Article e20154079. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-4079
Hughes, K. Ford, K., Bellis, M. A., Glendinning, F., Harrison, E., & Passmore, J. (2021). Health and financial costs of adverse childhood experiences in 28 European countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 6(11), e848–e857. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00232-2
Kabiru, C. W., Elung’ata, P., Mojola, S. A., & Beguy, D. (2014). Adverse life events and delinquent behavior among Kenyan adolescents: A cross-sectional study on the protective role of parental monitoring, religiosity, and self-esteem. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 8, Article 24. http://www.capmh.com/content/8/1/24
Kappel, R. H., Livingston, M. D., Patel, S. N., Villaveces, A., & Massetti, G. M. (2021). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and associated health risks and risk behaviors among young women and men in Honduras. Child Abuse & Neglect, 115, Article 104993. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.104993
Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alhamzawi, A. O., Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M., Benjet, C., Bromet, E., Chatterji, S., Girolamo, G., Demyttenaere, K., Fayyad, J., Florescu, S., Gal, G., Gureje, O., … Williams, D. R. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. British Journal of Psychiatry, 197(5), 378–385. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080499
Kiburi, S. K., Molebatsi, K., Obondo, A., & Kuria, M. K. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences among patients with substance use disorders at a referral psychiatric hospital in Kenya. BMC Psychiatry, 18, Article 197. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1780-1
Kidman, R., Piccolo, L. R., & Kohler, H.-P. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences: Prevalence and association with adolescent health in Malawi. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 58(2), 285–293,. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2019.08.028
Koita, K., Long, D., Hessler, D., Benson, M., Daley, K., Bucci, M., Thakur, N., & Burke Harris, N. (2018). Development and implementation of a pediatric adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and other determinants of health questionnaire in the pediatric medical home: A pilot study. PLoS One, 13(12), e0208088. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208088
Lee, NH., Massetti, G. M., Perry, E. W., & Self-Brown, S. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences and associated mental distress and suicide risk: Results from the Zambia violence against children survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(21-22), NP21244-NP21265. doi:10.1177/08862605211056726
Massetti, G. M., Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., & Mercy, J. (2019). Global perspectives on ACEs. In G. J. G. Asmundson & T. O. Afifi (Eds.), Adverse childhood experiences: Using evidence to advance research, practice, policy, & prevention (pp. 209–231). Elsevier. doi:10.1016/C2017-0-03827-2
Meinck, F., Cluver, L. D., Boyes, M. E., & Mhlongo, E. L. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and sexual abuse of children and adolescents in Africa: A review and implications for practice. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(1), 81–107. doi:10.1177/1524838014523336
Mejia, C. L. Telega, G., Wilson, S. L., & Nagorska, M. (2018). Screening for adverse childhood experiences within paediatric patients in Rzeszów, Poland. Polish Journal of Paediatrics, 93(4), 306–311. doi:10.5114/polp.2018.77995
Merrick, M. T., Ford, D. C., Ports, K. A., Guinn, A. S., Chen, J., Klevens, J., Metzler, M. Jones, C. M., Simon, T. R., Daniel, V. M., Ottley, P., & Mercy, J. A. (2019). Vital signs: Estimated proportion of adult health problems attributable to adverse childhood experiences and implications for prevention —25 states, 2015–2017. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 68(44), 999–1005. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6844e1
Mumford, E. A., Taylor, B. G., Berg, M., Liu, W., & Miesfeld, N. (2019). The social anatomy of adverse childhood experiences and aggression in a representative sample of young adults in the U.S. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 15–27. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.10.016
Phasha, T. N. (2014). The school functioning of individuals with childhood experiences of sexual abuse: Results and implications of a South African study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 17(1-2), 57–65. doi:10.1080/14330237.2007.10820145
Rahapsari, S., Granitha, V., Puri, S., & Putri., A. K. (2021). An Indonesian adaptation of the World Health Organization Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire (WHO ACE-IQ) as a screening instrument for adults. Gadjah Mada Journal of Psychology, 7(1), 115–130. doi:10.22146/gamajop.62623
Ramiro, L. S., Madrid, B. J., & Brown, D. W. (2010). Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and health-risk behaviors among adults in a developing country setting. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(11), 842–855. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.02.012
Ran, G., Zhang, Q., Zhang, Q., Li, J., & Chen, J. (2023). The association between child abuse and aggressive behavior: A three-level meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(5), 3461–3475. doi:10.1177/15248380221129596
Sika-Bright, S., & Nnorom, C. C. P. (2013). The perception of children on child sexual abuse:The case of children in some selected schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana. Advances in Applied Sociology, 3(6), 246–252. doi:10.4236/aasoci.2013.36033
Soares, A. L. G., Howe, L. D., Matijasevich, A., Wehrmeister, F. C., Menezes, A. M. B., & Goncalves, H. (2016). Adverse childhood experiences: Prevalence and related factors in adolescents of a Brazilian birth cohort. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 21–30. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.11.017
Subramaniam, M., Abdin, E., Seow, E., Vaingankar, J. A., Shafie, S., Shahwan, S., Lim, M., Fung, D., James, L., Verma, S., & Chong, S. A. (2020). Prevalence, socio-demographic correlates and associations of adverse childhood experiences with mental illnesses: Results from the Singapore Mental Health Study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 103, Article 104447. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104447
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). What you need to know about the Child Protection Baseline Research [Summary report]. Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, Republic of Ghana. https://www.unicef.org/ghana/media/1641/file/ChildProtection-BaselineResearch.pdf
VanderEnde, K., Chiang, L., Mercy, J., Shawa, M., Hamela, J., Maksud, N., Gupta, S., Wadonda-Kabondo, N., Saul, J., Gleckel, J., Kress, H., & Hillis, S. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and HIV sexual risk-taking behaviors among young adults in Malawi. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(11), 1710–1730. doi:10.1177/0886260517752153
World Health Organization. (2016). Facts sheet: Child maltreatment. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment
Audu, B., Geidam, A., & Jarma, H. (2009). Child labor and sexual assault among girls in Maiduguri, Nigeria. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 104(1), 61–67. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2008.09.007
Badoe, E. (2017). A critical review of child abuse and its management in Africa. African Journal of Emergency Medicine, 7(Suppl), S32–S35. doi:10.1016/j.afjem.2017.09.002h
Bellis, M.A., Hughes, K., Leckenby, N., Perkins, C., & Lowey, H. (2014). National household survey of adverse childhood experiences and their relationship with resilience to health-harming behaviors in England. BMC Medicine, 12, Article 72. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-12-72
Bellis, M. A., Hughes, K., Ford, K., Ramos Rodriguez, G., Sethi, D., & Passmore, J. (2019). Life course health consequences and associated annual costs of adverse childhood experiences across Europe and North America: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 4(10), e517–e528. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30145-8
Blum, R. W., Li, M., & Naranjo-Rivera, G. (2019). Measuring adverse child experiences among young adolescents globally: Relationships with depressive symptoms and violence perpetration. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), 86–93. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.020
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 993–1028). John Wiley & Sons.
Bucci M., Gutiérrez Wang L., Koita K, Purewal S., Silvério Marques S., Burke Harris N. (2015). Center for Youth Wellness ACE-Questionnaire User Guide. San Francisco, CA: Center for Youth Wellness.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). 2019 state and local youth risk behavior survey. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/2019/2019_YRBS-Standard-HS-Questionnaire.pdf
Charak, R., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Berckmoes, L. H., Ndayisaba, H., & Reis, R. (2017). Assessing the factor structure of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and cumulative effect of abuse and neglect on mental health among adolescents in conflict-affected Burundi. Child Abuse & Neglect, 72, 383–392. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.009
Charak, R., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Berckmoes, L. H., Ndayisaba, H., & Reis, R. (2021). Intergenerational maltreatment in parent–child dyads from Burundi, Africa: Associations among parental depression and connectedness, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and aggression in children. International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 34(5), 943–954. doi:10.1002/jts.22735
Chigiji, H., Fry, D., Mwadiwa, T. E., Elizalde, A., Izumi, N., Baago-Rasmussen, L., & Maternowska, M. C. (2018). Risk factors and health consequences of physical and emotional violence against children in Zimbabwe: A nationally representative survey. BMJ Global Health, 3(3), e000533. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000533
Cluver, L., Orkin, M., Boyes, M. E., & Sherr, L. (2015). Child and adolescent suicide attempts, suicidal behavior, and adverse childhood experiences in South Africa: A prospective study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(1), 52–59. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.03.001
Cooke, E. M., Connolly, E. J., Boisvert, D. L., & Hayes, B. E. (2023). A systematic review of the biological correlates and consequences of childhood maltreatment and adverse childhood experiences. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(1), 156–173. doi:10.1177/15248380211021613
Crouch, E., Probst, J. C., Radcliff, E., Bennett, K. J., & McKinney, S. H. (2019). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) among US children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 92, 209–218. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.04.010
Dawes, A., De Sas Kropiwnicki, Z., Kafaar, Z., & Richter, L. (2005). Corporal punishment of children: A South African national survey. https://repository.hsrc.ac.za/bitstream/handle/20.500.11910/7142/3456.pdf
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
Godden, B. (2004). Sample size formulas. Journal of Statistics, 3(66).
Hillis, S., Mercy, J., Amobi, A., & Kress, H. (2016). Global prevalence of past-year violence against children: A systematic review and minimum estimates. Pediatrics, 137(3), Article e20154079. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-4079
Hughes, K. Ford, K., Bellis, M. A., Glendinning, F., Harrison, E., & Passmore, J. (2021). Health and financial costs of adverse childhood experiences in 28 European countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 6(11), e848–e857. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00232-2
Kabiru, C. W., Elung’ata, P., Mojola, S. A., & Beguy, D. (2014). Adverse life events and delinquent behavior among Kenyan adolescents: A cross-sectional study on the protective role of parental monitoring, religiosity, and self-esteem. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 8, Article 24. http://www.capmh.com/content/8/1/24
Kappel, R. H., Livingston, M. D., Patel, S. N., Villaveces, A., & Massetti, G. M. (2021). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and associated health risks and risk behaviors among young women and men in Honduras. Child Abuse & Neglect, 115, Article 104993. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.104993
Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alhamzawi, A. O., Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M., Benjet, C., Bromet, E., Chatterji, S., Girolamo, G., Demyttenaere, K., Fayyad, J., Florescu, S., Gal, G., Gureje, O., … Williams, D. R. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. British Journal of Psychiatry, 197(5), 378–385. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080499
Kiburi, S. K., Molebatsi, K., Obondo, A., & Kuria, M. K. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences among patients with substance use disorders at a referral psychiatric hospital in Kenya. BMC Psychiatry, 18, Article 197. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1780-1
Kidman, R., Piccolo, L. R., & Kohler, H.-P. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences: Prevalence and association with adolescent health in Malawi. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 58(2), 285–293,. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2019.08.028
Koita, K., Long, D., Hessler, D., Benson, M., Daley, K., Bucci, M., Thakur, N., & Burke Harris, N. (2018). Development and implementation of a pediatric adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and other determinants of health questionnaire in the pediatric medical home: A pilot study. PLoS One, 13(12), e0208088. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208088
Lee, NH., Massetti, G. M., Perry, E. W., & Self-Brown, S. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences and associated mental distress and suicide risk: Results from the Zambia violence against children survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(21-22), NP21244-NP21265. doi:10.1177/08862605211056726
Massetti, G. M., Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., & Mercy, J. (2019). Global perspectives on ACEs. In G. J. G. Asmundson & T. O. Afifi (Eds.), Adverse childhood experiences: Using evidence to advance research, practice, policy, & prevention (pp. 209–231). Elsevier. doi:10.1016/C2017-0-03827-2
Meinck, F., Cluver, L. D., Boyes, M. E., & Mhlongo, E. L. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and sexual abuse of children and adolescents in Africa: A review and implications for practice. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(1), 81–107. doi:10.1177/1524838014523336
Mejia, C. L. Telega, G., Wilson, S. L., & Nagorska, M. (2018). Screening for adverse childhood experiences within paediatric patients in Rzeszów, Poland. Polish Journal of Paediatrics, 93(4), 306–311. doi:10.5114/polp.2018.77995
Merrick, M. T., Ford, D. C., Ports, K. A., Guinn, A. S., Chen, J., Klevens, J., Metzler, M. Jones, C. M., Simon, T. R., Daniel, V. M., Ottley, P., & Mercy, J. A. (2019). Vital signs: Estimated proportion of adult health problems attributable to adverse childhood experiences and implications for prevention —25 states, 2015–2017. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 68(44), 999–1005. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6844e1
Mumford, E. A., Taylor, B. G., Berg, M., Liu, W., & Miesfeld, N. (2019). The social anatomy of adverse childhood experiences and aggression in a representative sample of young adults in the U.S. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 15–27. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.10.016
Phasha, T. N. (2014). The school functioning of individuals with childhood experiences of sexual abuse: Results and implications of a South African study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 17(1-2), 57–65. doi:10.1080/14330237.2007.10820145
Rahapsari, S., Granitha, V., Puri, S., & Putri., A. K. (2021). An Indonesian adaptation of the World Health Organization Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire (WHO ACE-IQ) as a screening instrument for adults. Gadjah Mada Journal of Psychology, 7(1), 115–130. doi:10.22146/gamajop.62623
Ramiro, L. S., Madrid, B. J., & Brown, D. W. (2010). Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and health-risk behaviors among adults in a developing country setting. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(11), 842–855. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.02.012
Ran, G., Zhang, Q., Zhang, Q., Li, J., & Chen, J. (2023). The association between child abuse and aggressive behavior: A three-level meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(5), 3461–3475. doi:10.1177/15248380221129596
Sika-Bright, S., & Nnorom, C. C. P. (2013). The perception of children on child sexual abuse:The case of children in some selected schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana. Advances in Applied Sociology, 3(6), 246–252. doi:10.4236/aasoci.2013.36033
Soares, A. L. G., Howe, L. D., Matijasevich, A., Wehrmeister, F. C., Menezes, A. M. B., & Goncalves, H. (2016). Adverse childhood experiences: Prevalence and related factors in adolescents of a Brazilian birth cohort. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 21–30. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.11.017
Subramaniam, M., Abdin, E., Seow, E., Vaingankar, J. A., Shafie, S., Shahwan, S., Lim, M., Fung, D., James, L., Verma, S., & Chong, S. A. (2020). Prevalence, socio-demographic correlates and associations of adverse childhood experiences with mental illnesses: Results from the Singapore Mental Health Study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 103, Article 104447. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104447
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). What you need to know about the Child Protection Baseline Research [Summary report]. Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, Republic of Ghana. https://www.unicef.org/ghana/media/1641/file/ChildProtection-BaselineResearch.pdf
VanderEnde, K., Chiang, L., Mercy, J., Shawa, M., Hamela, J., Maksud, N., Gupta, S., Wadonda-Kabondo, N., Saul, J., Gleckel, J., Kress, H., & Hillis, S. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and HIV sexual risk-taking behaviors among young adults in Malawi. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(11), 1710–1730. doi:10.1177/0886260517752153
World Health Organization. (2016). Facts sheet: Child maltreatment. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/child-maltreatment
Published
2024-10-30
How to Cite
Afriyie, J., Bolton, K., & Nelson-Gardell, D. (2024). PARENT REPORTS OF THE PREVALENCE OF ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AMONG CHILDREN AND TEENS IN THE CAPE COAST METROPOLIS, GHANA. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 15(3), 29-49. https://doi.org/10.18357/ijcyfs153202422162
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