STRESS AND COPING AMONG PARENTS WITH CHILDREN ENROLLED IN REMOTE SCHOOLING DURING COVID-19
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18357/ijcyfs153202422163Keywords:
COVID-19, children, parenting, stress, copingAbstract
The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated the closure of schools, prompting 93% of U.S. households with children to transition to remote schooling. This study investigates coping mechanisms used by parents and the emotional impact of remote schooling on their well-being. A cross-sectional online survey, grounded in the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, was conducted among 133 U.S. parents with children engaged in remote schooling from May to October 2020. Pearson correlations and paired sample t-tests were calculated. Multiple regression was performed to determine how well stress, resilience, and gender predict depressive symptoms. The study participants had an average of 1.96 children. Most commonly used coping mechanisms included planful problem-solving, seeking social support, and escape/avoidance. A statistically significant positive association was found between stress and depressive symptoms. Stress and depressive symptoms increased during the pandemic, while resilience decreased. The resulting statistically significant regression model of stress, resilience, and gender accounted for 75.4% of the variability in depressive symptoms. These results underscore the importance of addressing parental well-being and mental health during times of crisis, particularly when children are engaged in remote schooling.
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References
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Campbell-Sills, L., & Stein, M. B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC): Validation of a 10-item measure of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 1019–1028. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20271
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Mental health: Coping with stress. https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/stress-coping/cope-with-stress/index.html
Connell, C. M., & Strambler, M. J. (2021). Experiences with COVID-19 stressors and parents’ use of neglectful, harsh, and positive parenting practices in the Northeastern United States. Child Maltreatment, 26(3), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595211006465
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de Jong, P. F., Schreurs, B. G. M., & Zee, M. (2022). Parent–child conflict during homeschooling in times of the COVID-19 pandemic: A key role for mothers’ self-efficacy in teaching. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 70, Article 102083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102083
Deater-Deckard, K. (2004). Parenting stress. Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300103939.001.0001
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 150–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.150
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of personality and social psychology, 50, 571.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Moore, A. D., & Stambrook, M. (1988). Ways of coping questionnaire: Manual, instrument, scoring guide. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Fontenelle-Tereshchuk, D. (2021). “Homeschooling” and the COVID-19 crisis: The insights of parents on curriculum and remote learning. Interchange, 52(2), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780-021-09420-w
Frank, S. H., & Zyzanski, S. J. (1988). Stress in the clinical setting: The Brief Encounter psychosocial instrument. The Journal of Family Practice. 5, 533–539.
Garbe, A., Ogurlu, U., Logan, N., & Cook, P. (2020). COCID-19 and remote learning: Experiences of parents with children during the pandemic. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 4(3), 45–65. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471
Gassman-Pines, A., Ananat, E. O., Fitz-Henley, J., & Leer, J. (2022). Effect of daily school and care disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic on child behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 58(8). https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001373
Goldberg, A. E., Allen, K. R., & Smith, J. Z. (2021). Divorced and separated parents during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Family Process, 60(3), 866–887. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12693
Hong, J.-C., Liu, Y., Liu, Y., & Zhao, L. (2021). High school students’ online learning ineffectiveness in experimental courses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 738695. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.738695
Hutmacher, F. (2021). Putting stress in historical context: Why it is important that being stressed out was not a way to be a person 2,000 years ago. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 539799. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.539799
Kosiyaporn, H., Phaiyarom, M., Uansri, S., Kunpeuk, W., Julchoo, S., Sinam, P., Pudpong, N., & Suphanchaimat, R. (2023). Characteristics of distance education interventions and related outcomes in primary school children during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. PloS One, 18(10), e0286674. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286674
Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, coping and appraisal. In: New York: Springer.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1988). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3), 151–155.
Lee, S. J., Ward, K. P., Chang, O. D., & Downing, K. M. (2020). Parenting activities and the transition to home-based education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Children and Youth Services Review, 122, Article 105585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105585
Liu, F., Black, E., Algina, J., Cavanaugh, C., & Dawson, K. (2010). The validation of one parental involvement measurement in virtual schooling. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 9(2), 105–132. https://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/9.2.2.pdf
Maggio, M. G., Stagnitti, M. C., Calatozzo, P., Cannavò, A., Bruschetta, D., Cuzzola, M. F., Manuli, A., Pioggia, G., & Calabrò, R. S. (2021). What about the consequences of the use of distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic? A survey on the psychological effects in both children and parents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), Article 12641. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312641
Mayo Clinic. (2021). Chronic stress puts your health at risk. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress/art-20046037
McGoron, L., Wargo Aikins, J., Trentacosta, C. J., Gómez, J. M., & Beeghly, M. (2022). School support, chaos, routines, and parents’ mental health during COVID-19 remote schooling. School Psychology, 37(2), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000467
Melodia, F., Canale, N., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020). The role of avoidance coping and escape motives in problematic online gaming: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20(2), 996–1022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00422-w
Miller, J. J., Cooley, M. E., & Mihalec-Adkins, B. P. (2020). Examining the impact of COVID-19 on parental stress: A study of foster parents. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 39(2), 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-020-00725-w
Moreland-Russell, S., Jabbari, J., Ferris, D., & Roll, S. (2022). At home and on the brink: U.S. parents’ mental health during COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(9), Article 5586. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095586
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Neece, C. L., Green, S. A., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117(1), 48–66. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-117.1.48
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Russell, B. S., Hutchison, M., Tambling, R., Tomkunas, A. J., & Horton, A. L. (2020). Initial challenges of caregiving during COVID-19: Caregiver burden, mental health, and the parent–child relationship. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 51(5), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01037-x
Silverman, M. R., Stadterman, J., Lorenzi, D., Feuerstahler, L., Hirsch, E., & Roy, A. K. (2022). Parental factors that confer risk and resilience for remote learning outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic among children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 26(11), 1381–1393. https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547221084670
Sonnenschein, S., Grossman, E. R., & Grossman, J. A. (2021). U.S. parents’ reports of assisting their children with distance learning during COVID-19. Education Sciences, 11(9), 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11090501
U.S. Census Bureau. (2020). Household Pulse Survey public use file (PUF). Census.gov. Accessed September 12, 2024 at https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/household-pulse-survey/data/datasets.2020.html#list-tab-1264157801
van Tilburg, M. A. L., Drossman, D. A., & Knowles, S. R. (2022). Psychogastroenterology: The brain-gut axis and its psychological applications. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 152, Article 110684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110684
Warma, K., Acker, R. V., & Acker, E. V. (2015). Moving beyond the function of behavior: Working with students who engage in escape/avoidance. Pro-ACT & University of Illinois Chicago. Retrieved May 3, 2023 from http://www.proacttraining.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Pro-ACT-Chicago-School-Research_Escape-and-Avoidance-Study.pdf
World Health Organization (WHO). (2020, March 11). Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020 [Speech]. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020
American Psychological Association. (2022, October). Stress in American 2022 [Press release]. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2022/concerned-future-inflation
Borup, J., Stevens, M. A., & Waters, L. H. (2015). Parent and student perceptions of parent engagement at a cyber charter high school. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 19(5), 69–91. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1085792.pdf
Burton, T., Adlam, J. E., Murphy-Belcaster, M., Thompson-Robinson, M., Francis, C. D., Traylor, D., Anderson, E., Ricker-Boles, K., & King, S. (2020). Stress and coping among American Indian and Alaska Natives in the age of COVID-19. American Indian Culture And Research Journal, 44(2), 49–70. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicrj.44.2.burton
Campbell-Sills, L., & Stein, M. B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC): Validation of a 10-item measure of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 1019–1028. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20271
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Mental health: Coping with stress. https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/stress-coping/cope-with-stress/index.html
Connell, C. M., & Strambler, M. J. (2021). Experiences with COVID-19 stressors and parents’ use of neglectful, harsh, and positive parenting practices in the Northeastern United States. Child Maltreatment, 26(3), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595211006465
Coulacoglou, C., & Saklofske, D. H. (2017). The assessment of family, parenting, and child outcomes. In C. Coulacoglou & D. H. Saklofske, Psychometrics and psychological assessment: Principles and applications (pp. 187–222). Elsevier eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-802219-1.00008-0
de Jong, P. F., Schreurs, B. G. M., & Zee, M. (2022). Parent–child conflict during homeschooling in times of the COVID-19 pandemic: A key role for mothers’ self-efficacy in teaching. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 70, Article 102083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102083
Deater-Deckard, K. (2004). Parenting stress. Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300103939.001.0001
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 150–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.150
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of personality and social psychology, 50, 571.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Moore, A. D., & Stambrook, M. (1988). Ways of coping questionnaire: Manual, instrument, scoring guide. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Fontenelle-Tereshchuk, D. (2021). “Homeschooling” and the COVID-19 crisis: The insights of parents on curriculum and remote learning. Interchange, 52(2), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780-021-09420-w
Frank, S. H., & Zyzanski, S. J. (1988). Stress in the clinical setting: The Brief Encounter psychosocial instrument. The Journal of Family Practice. 5, 533–539.
Garbe, A., Ogurlu, U., Logan, N., & Cook, P. (2020). COCID-19 and remote learning: Experiences of parents with children during the pandemic. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 4(3), 45–65. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471
Gassman-Pines, A., Ananat, E. O., Fitz-Henley, J., & Leer, J. (2022). Effect of daily school and care disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic on child behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 58(8). https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001373
Goldberg, A. E., Allen, K. R., & Smith, J. Z. (2021). Divorced and separated parents during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Family Process, 60(3), 866–887. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12693
Hong, J.-C., Liu, Y., Liu, Y., & Zhao, L. (2021). High school students’ online learning ineffectiveness in experimental courses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 738695. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.738695
Hutmacher, F. (2021). Putting stress in historical context: Why it is important that being stressed out was not a way to be a person 2,000 years ago. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 539799. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.539799
Kosiyaporn, H., Phaiyarom, M., Uansri, S., Kunpeuk, W., Julchoo, S., Sinam, P., Pudpong, N., & Suphanchaimat, R. (2023). Characteristics of distance education interventions and related outcomes in primary school children during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. PloS One, 18(10), e0286674. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286674
Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, coping and appraisal. In: New York: Springer.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1988). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3), 151–155.
Lee, S. J., Ward, K. P., Chang, O. D., & Downing, K. M. (2020). Parenting activities and the transition to home-based education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Children and Youth Services Review, 122, Article 105585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105585
Liu, F., Black, E., Algina, J., Cavanaugh, C., & Dawson, K. (2010). The validation of one parental involvement measurement in virtual schooling. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 9(2), 105–132. https://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/9.2.2.pdf
Maggio, M. G., Stagnitti, M. C., Calatozzo, P., Cannavò, A., Bruschetta, D., Cuzzola, M. F., Manuli, A., Pioggia, G., & Calabrò, R. S. (2021). What about the consequences of the use of distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic? A survey on the psychological effects in both children and parents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), Article 12641. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312641
Mayo Clinic. (2021). Chronic stress puts your health at risk. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress/art-20046037
McGoron, L., Wargo Aikins, J., Trentacosta, C. J., Gómez, J. M., & Beeghly, M. (2022). School support, chaos, routines, and parents’ mental health during COVID-19 remote schooling. School Psychology, 37(2), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000467
Melodia, F., Canale, N., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020). The role of avoidance coping and escape motives in problematic online gaming: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20(2), 996–1022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00422-w
Miller, J. J., Cooley, M. E., & Mihalec-Adkins, B. P. (2020). Examining the impact of COVID-19 on parental stress: A study of foster parents. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 39(2), 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-020-00725-w
Moreland-Russell, S., Jabbari, J., Ferris, D., & Roll, S. (2022). At home and on the brink: U.S. parents’ mental health during COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(9), Article 5586. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095586
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2022). Stress. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/stress
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2022) I’m so stressed out! Fact sheet. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/so-stressed-out-fact-sheet
Neece, C. L., Green, S. A., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117(1), 48–66. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-117.1.48
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Russell, B. S., Hutchison, M., Tambling, R., Tomkunas, A. J., & Horton, A. L. (2020). Initial challenges of caregiving during COVID-19: Caregiver burden, mental health, and the parent–child relationship. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 51(5), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01037-x
Silverman, M. R., Stadterman, J., Lorenzi, D., Feuerstahler, L., Hirsch, E., & Roy, A. K. (2022). Parental factors that confer risk and resilience for remote learning outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic among children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 26(11), 1381–1393. https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547221084670
Sonnenschein, S., Grossman, E. R., & Grossman, J. A. (2021). U.S. parents’ reports of assisting their children with distance learning during COVID-19. Education Sciences, 11(9), 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11090501
U.S. Census Bureau. (2020). Household Pulse Survey public use file (PUF). Census.gov. Accessed September 12, 2024 at https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/household-pulse-survey/data/datasets.2020.html#list-tab-1264157801
van Tilburg, M. A. L., Drossman, D. A., & Knowles, S. R. (2022). Psychogastroenterology: The brain-gut axis and its psychological applications. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 152, Article 110684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110684
Warma, K., Acker, R. V., & Acker, E. V. (2015). Moving beyond the function of behavior: Working with students who engage in escape/avoidance. Pro-ACT & University of Illinois Chicago. Retrieved May 3, 2023 from http://www.proacttraining.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Pro-ACT-Chicago-School-Research_Escape-and-Avoidance-Study.pdf
World Health Organization (WHO). (2020, March 11). Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020 [Speech]. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020
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2024-10-30
How to Cite
Chevalier, J.-A., Andrews Adlam, J., Thompson-Robinson, M., Dodge Francis, C., Anderson, E., & Traylor, D. O. (2024). STRESS AND COPING AMONG PARENTS WITH CHILDREN ENROLLED IN REMOTE SCHOOLING DURING COVID-19. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 15(3), 50–68. https://doi.org/10.18357/ijcyfs153202422163
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